Early Russian Liberalism
Free Thinking in an Autocratic State
The French Revolution in 1789 began a wave of liberal thinking that swept over Europe. Liberals advocated for the rights of each individual, equality in society, and the expansion of political and civil freedoms. Mikhail Speransky (1772-1839) is often seen as the father of Russian liberalism, and it was Speransky that proposed key reforms that would materialise a century or more later in the creation of the Duma and extended voting rights. His work was continued by the likes of Boris Chicherin (1828-1904) and Alexander Herzen (1812-1870).
It is hard to imagine how liberalism might flourish in an autocratic regime such as the Russian Empire, and it is true that, for the large part, it was something of an underground movement, whispered from the shadows rather than proclaimed from the soapbox. Historians accept that the growth of liberalism at the end of the 19th century was a key factor in the downfall of tsarism, but two key events suggest that it was a powerful force much earlier than that: the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, and the emancipation of the serfs in 1861.
It is hard to imagine how liberalism might flourish in an autocratic regime such as the Russian Empire, and it is true that, for the large part, it was something of an underground movement, whispered from the shadows rather than proclaimed from the soapbox. Historians accept that the growth of liberalism at the end of the 19th century was a key factor in the downfall of tsarism, but two key events suggest that it was a powerful force much earlier than that: the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, and the emancipation of the serfs in 1861.
The Decembrist Revolt, 1825
Upon the death of Tsar Alexander I in 1825, it was assumed that his brother Constantine would assume the throne, and the Russian army pledged their support for him. Constantine, however, declined the throne and Nicholas I stepped forward instead. Constantine had been a popular choice as he was seen as a reformist. Since Russia's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars, many soldiers who had travelled abroad had experienced regimes other than the autocracy of their homeland, and were suddenly aware of the shortcomings of Russian society, particularly the harsh treatment of its peasantry. As such, many had become more liberal in their political views, and so threw their support behind Constantine.
When Nicholas I, a staunch autocrat, assumed the throne, around 3,000 soldiers assembled in Senate Square, St. Petersburg, on December 26, 1825 to protest the ascension of the new tsar. The protest lasted most of the day, at the end of which it turned bloody, with the new tsar ordering artillery units to fire upon the rebels.
In the aftermath, the leaders of the revolt were arrested, tried and either executed or exiled. The Decembrist movement had failed, but the events demonstrate the swell of liberalism in Russia nearly a century before the fall of tsarism, and historians agree that this thinking continued to grow throughout the nineteenth century.
Source B: Mark Schauss, Decembrist Revolt (Russian Rulers History, 2012)
When Nicholas I, a staunch autocrat, assumed the throne, around 3,000 soldiers assembled in Senate Square, St. Petersburg, on December 26, 1825 to protest the ascension of the new tsar. The protest lasted most of the day, at the end of which it turned bloody, with the new tsar ordering artillery units to fire upon the rebels.
In the aftermath, the leaders of the revolt were arrested, tried and either executed or exiled. The Decembrist movement had failed, but the events demonstrate the swell of liberalism in Russia nearly a century before the fall of tsarism, and historians agree that this thinking continued to grow throughout the nineteenth century.
Source B: Mark Schauss, Decembrist Revolt (Russian Rulers History, 2012)
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Source D
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The Emancipation of the Serfs, 1861
Until the mid-19th century, half of the Russian peasantry were serfs - peasants who were, by law, tied to the owner of the land on which they worked. Serfs were not exactly slaves, but their had very few rights and usually lived a life of continuous labour. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II recognised that serfdom was becoming a liability to Russia. Not only was it incompatible with the industrialisation that was taking place across Europe, but during the Crimean War, Russia's conscripted serfs had been no match for the volunteer soldiers of the British and French.
In 1861, Alexander issued the Edict of Emancipation. This stated that all privately owned serfs were given the right to become free citizens, free to marry, own land and their own businesses. Those tied to the land were entitled to buy the land they had previously leased. The emancipation of the serfs is considered to be the most important reform to have taken place in 19th century Russia, and altered the social dynamic of the empire.
Many historians consider the emancipation of the serfs to be a missed opportunity for effective reform. Ex-serfs were charged up to double the market value for the land they purchased, which led to them taking loans to cover the cost. The redemption payments, scheduled to be paid over 49 years, caused a great deal of hardship and led to further unrest. The social changes it created are considered to be one of the long-term causes of the revolutions of 1905 and 1917.
Source F: Declaration of Alexander III Emancipating the Serfs (given at St. Petersburg, March 3, 1861)
Source G: Michael Lynch, The Emancipation of the Russian Serfs, 1861: a Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? (History Review, December 2003).
In 1861, Alexander issued the Edict of Emancipation. This stated that all privately owned serfs were given the right to become free citizens, free to marry, own land and their own businesses. Those tied to the land were entitled to buy the land they had previously leased. The emancipation of the serfs is considered to be the most important reform to have taken place in 19th century Russia, and altered the social dynamic of the empire.
Many historians consider the emancipation of the serfs to be a missed opportunity for effective reform. Ex-serfs were charged up to double the market value for the land they purchased, which led to them taking loans to cover the cost. The redemption payments, scheduled to be paid over 49 years, caused a great deal of hardship and led to further unrest. The social changes it created are considered to be one of the long-term causes of the revolutions of 1905 and 1917.
Source F: Declaration of Alexander III Emancipating the Serfs (given at St. Petersburg, March 3, 1861)
Source G: Michael Lynch, The Emancipation of the Russian Serfs, 1861: a Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? (History Review, December 2003).
References for this page
Hamburg, G. M. (1992). Boris Chicherin and Early Russian Liberalism 1828-1866. Stanford: University Press.
Llewellyn, J., Rae, J., Thompson, S. (2014). Russian Society. Retrieved from http://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/reform-and-reaction-in-russia/
Lynch, M. (2003). The Emancipation of the Serfs, 1861: a Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? History Review 47. Retrieved from http://www.historytoday.com/michael-lynch/emancipation-russian-serfs-1861-charter-freedom-or-act-betrayal
Lynch, M. (1992). Access to History: Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 Fourth Edition. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
Schenner, J.K. (2012). Birth of Russian Conservative Liberalism. Retrieved from http://www.cfe.ru/en/resource_center/bulletin/issue1791/1804.htm.
Hamburg, G. M. (1992). Boris Chicherin and Early Russian Liberalism 1828-1866. Stanford: University Press.
Llewellyn, J., Rae, J., Thompson, S. (2014). Russian Society. Retrieved from http://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/reform-and-reaction-in-russia/
Lynch, M. (2003). The Emancipation of the Serfs, 1861: a Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? History Review 47. Retrieved from http://www.historytoday.com/michael-lynch/emancipation-russian-serfs-1861-charter-freedom-or-act-betrayal
Lynch, M. (1992). Access to History: Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 Fourth Edition. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
Schenner, J.K. (2012). Birth of Russian Conservative Liberalism. Retrieved from http://www.cfe.ru/en/resource_center/bulletin/issue1791/1804.htm.